Navigating Emotional Intelligence: A Comprehensive Review of Theories, Models and Applications
Abstract
This study aims to examine the foundational theories, models, and assessment tools of emotional intelligence (EI), focusing on their practical applications in organizational settings. The research conducts a thorough narrative review, analyzing existing literature from key academic databases to identify the strengths and limitations of different EI models. The findings highlight ExzI's significant role in enhancing leadership, teamwork, and employee well-being. By critically evaluating various measurement tools, the study underscores the importance of selecting appropriate EI assessments to inform academic and professional frameworks. The outcomes of this research offer valuable insights for improving EI training programs and integrating emotional competencies into leadership development and organizational strategies.
Downloads
References
Arfara, C., and Samanta, I. (2016). The impact of emotional intelligence on improving team-working: The case of Public Sector. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 230, 167–175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.09.021
Bar-On, R. (1997). Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Technical manual (EQ-i). Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
Bar-On, R. (1997b). The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A Test of Emotional Intelligence. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
Bar-On, R. (2004). The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Rationale, description, and summary of psychometric properties. In G. Geher (Ed.), Measuring emotional intelligence: Common ground and controversy (pp. 115–145). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI). Psicothema, 18, 13–25.
Bar-On, R. (2007). The Bar-On model of emotional intelligence: A valid, robust and applicable EI model. Organizations and People, 14(2), 27–34.
Biju, A., Wanat, M. A., El-Desoky, R., Vu, C., and Varkey, D. (2023). Evaluation of student emotional intelligence at various points in a pharmacy curriculum. Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning, 15(6), 573–580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cptl.2023.06.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cptl.2023.06.005
Boyatzis, R. E., and Goleman, D. (2007). Emotional and social competency inventory. The Hay Group (now Korn Ferry Hay Group).
Bucich, M., and MacCann, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence research in Australia: Past contributions and future directions. Australian Journal of Psychology, 71(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12231 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12231
Chamizo-Nieto, M. T., Arrivillaga, C., Rey, L., and Extremera, N. (2021). The role of emotional intelligence, the teacher-student relationship, and flourishing on academic performance in adolescents: A moderated mediation study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 695067. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.695067
Cherniss, C., and Goleman, D. (2001). The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure, and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Dåderman, A. M., Kajonius, P. J., Hallberg, A., Skog, S., and Hellström, Å. (2023). Leading with a cool head and a warm heart: Trait-based leadership resources linked to task performance, perceived stress, and work engagement. Current Psychology, 42, 29559–29580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03767-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03767-8
Do?ru, Ç. (2022). A meta-analysis of the relationships between emotional intelligence and employee outcomes. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 611348. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.611348 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.611348
Fiori, M., Antonietti, J.-P., Mikolajczak, M., Luminet, O., Hansenne, M., and Rossier, J. (2014). What is the Ability Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) good for? An evaluation using item response theory. PLoS ONE, 9(6), e98827. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098827 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098827
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. New York: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.40619981008
Gong, Y., Wu, Y., Huang, P., Yan, and., and Luo, Z. (2020). Psychological empowerment and work engagement as mediating roles between trait emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 232. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00232 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00232
Haricharan, S. J. (2022). Is the leadership performance of public service executive managers related to their emotional intelligence? SA Journal of Human Resource Management/SA Tydskrif vir Menslikehulpbronbestuur, 20(0), Article a1773. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v20i0.1773 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v20i0.1773
Hjalmarsson, A. K. V., and Dåderman, A. M. (2022). Relationship between emotional intelligence, personality, and self-perceived individual work performance: A cross-sectional study on the Swedish version of TEIQue-SF. Current Psychology, 41(5), 2558–2573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00753-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00753-w
Hsieh, C.-C., Li, H.-C., Liang, J.-K., and Chiu, Y.-C. (2024). Empowering teachers through principals' emotional intelligence: Unlocking the potential of organizational citizenship behavior in Taiwan's elementary schools. Acta Psychologica, 243, 104142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104142 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104142
Hughes, D. J., and Evans, T. R. (2018). Putting ‘emotional intelligence’ in their place: Introducing the integrated model of affect-related individual differences. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2155. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02155 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02155
Joseph, D. L., and Newman, D. A. (2010). Emotional Intelligence: An Integrative Meta-Analysis and Cascading Model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 54–78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017286
Karimi, L., Leggat, S. G., Bartram, T., Afshari, L., Sarkeshik, S., and Verulava, T. (2021). Emotional intelligence: Predictor of employees’ wellbeing, quality of patient care, and psychological empowerment. BMC Psychology, 9(1), 93. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00593-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00593-8
Landy, F. J. (2005). Some historical and scientific issues related to research on emotional intelligence. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 411. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/job.317
Law, K. S., Wong, C. S., and Song, L. J. (2004). The construct and criterion validity of emotional intelligence and its potential utility for management studies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 483-496. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.483
Lea, R. G., Davis, S. K., Mahoney, B., and Qualter, P. (2019). Does emotional intelligence buffer the effects of acute stress? A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 1, 810. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00810
Livesey, P. V. (2017). Goleman-Boyatzis model of emotional intelligence for dealing with problems in project management. Construction Economics and Building, 17(1), 20-45. https://doi.org/10.5130/AJCEB.v17i1.5101 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5130/AJCEB.v17i1.5101
Nafukho, F. M., Muyia, M. H., Farnia, F., Kacirek, K., and Lynham, S. A. (2016). Developing emotional intelligence skills among practicing leaders: Reality or myth? Performance Improvement Quarterly, 29(1), 71–87. https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.21215 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.21215
Makkar, S., and Basu, S. (2017). The Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Workplace Behaviour: A Study of Bank Employees. Global Business Review, 20(2), 1–21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150917713903
Mancini, G., Biolcati, R., Joseph, D., Trombini, E., and Andrei, F. (2022). Emotional intelligence: Current research and future perspectives on mental health and individual differences. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1049431. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1049431 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1049431
Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., and Roberts, R.D. (2002). Emotional intelligence: Science and myth. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/2704.001.0001
Maul, A. (2012). The validity of the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) as a measure of emotional intelligence. Emotion Review, 4(4), 394–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912445811 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912445811
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., and Salovey, P. (2016). The Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence: Principles and Updates. Emotion Review, 8(4), 290–300. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916639667
Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., and Caruso, D.R. (2002). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R., and Sitarenios, G. (2003). Measuring emotional intelligence with the MSCEIT V2.0. Emotion, 3(1), 97–105. doi:10.1037/1528–3542.3.1.97 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.97
Mayer, J. D., and Salovey, P. (1997). What is Emotional Intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. J. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence (pp. 3–34). New York, NY: Basic Books.
Mortillaro, M., and Schlegel, K. (2023). Embracing the emotion in emotional intelligence measurement: Insights from emotion theory and research. Journal of Intelligence, 11(11), 210. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110210 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110210
Namugumya, J., Munene, J. C., Mafabi, S. S., and Kagaari, J. (2023). Mediation role of systems adaptability between emotional intelligence and talent management in tertiary institutions. Industrial and Commercial Training, 55(2), 172-198. https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-09-2022-0068 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-09-2022-0068
Nguyen, N. T., Nham, P. T., and Takahashi, Y. (2019). Relationship between ability-based emotional intelligence, cognitive intelligence, and job performance. Sustainability, 11(8), 2299. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082299 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082299
O’Connor, P. J., Hill, A., Kaya, M., and Martin, B. (2019). The measurement of emotional intelligence: A critical review of the literature and recommendations for researchers and practitioners. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(1116). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01116
Payne, W. L. (1985). A Study of Emotion: Developing Emotional Intelligence; Self-Integration; Relating to Fear, Pain and Desire. The Union for Experimenting Colleges and Universities.
Perry, J. L., and Clough, P. J. (2017). Predicting cooperation in competitive conditions: The role of sportspersonship, moral competence, and emotional intelligence. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 31, 88–92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.04.008
Petrides, K. V. (2009). Technical manual for the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaires (TEIQue). London, England: London Psychometric Laboratory. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-88370-0_5
Petrides, K. V. (2010). Trait emotional intelligence theory. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 3(2), 136–139. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01213.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01213.x
Petrides, K. V. (2011). Ability and trait emotional intelligence. In T. Chamorro-Premuzic, S. von Stumm, & A. Furnham (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Individual Differences (pp. 656-678). Wiley Blackwell. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444343120.ch25
Petrides, K.V. and Furnham, A. (2000). On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 29(2), 313–320. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00195-6
Petrides, K. V., and Furnham, A. (2001). Trait Emotional Intelligence : Psychometric Investigation concerning Established Trait Taxonomies. European Journal of Personality, 15, 425–448. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/per.416
Pong, H.-K., and Leung, C.-H. (2023). Cross-sectional study of the relationship between trait emotional intelligence and career adaptability of Chinese youths. BMC Public Health, 23, 514. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15372-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15372-w
Rezvani, A., Barrett, R., and Khosravi, P. (2019). Investigating the relationships among team emotional intelligence, trust, conflict and team performance. Team Performance Management, 25(1/2), 120–137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/TPM-03-2018-0019
Salovey, P., and Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition & Personality, 9(3), 185–211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG
Sánchez-Alvarez, N., Berrios Martos, M. P., and Extremera, N. (2020). A meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance in secondary education: A multi-stream comparison. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 1517. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01517
Sehgal, S. (2023). Why emotional intelligence is crucial for effective leadership. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/councils/forbesbusinesscouncil/2023/07/25/why-emotional-intelligence-is-crucial-for-effective-leadership/
Taylor, M. J., Andreatta, R., Woltenberg, L., Cormier, M., and Hoch, J. M. (2024). The relationship of emotional intelligence to burnout and related factors in healthcare profession students. Nurse Education Today, 143, 106387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2024.106387 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2024.106387
Thorndike, E. L. (1920). Intelligence and its uses. Harper’s Magazine, 140, 227–235.
Trigueros, R., Aguilar-Parra, J. M., Cangas, A. J., Bermejo, R., Ferrandiz, C., and López-Liria, R. (2019). Influence of emotional intelligence, motivation and resilience on academic performance and the adoption of healthy lifestyle habits among adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2810), 1–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162810
Urquijo, I., Extremera, N., and Azanza, G. (2019). The contribution of emotional intelligence to career success: Beyond personality traits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, 1–13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234809
Wechsler, D. (1939). The measurement of adult intelligence. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/10020-000
Wong, C. S., and Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and attitude: An exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00099-1
Copyright (c) 2024 Heamalatha Krishnan
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Author (s) should affirm that the material has not been published previously. It has not been submitted and it is not under consideration by any other journal. At the same time author (s) need to execute a publication permission agreement to assume the responsibility of the submitted content and any omissions and errors therein. After submission of revised paper in the light of suggestions of the reviewers, the editorial team edits and formats manuscripts to bring uniformity and standardization in published material.
This work will be licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) and under condition of the license, users are free to read, copy, remix, transform, redistribute, download, print, search or link to the full texts of articles and even build upon their work as long as they credit the author for the original work. Moreover, as per journal policy author (s) hold and retain copyrights without any restrictions.
