Performing without Pressure? The Effect of Ghost Games on Effort-based and Skill-based Tasks in the German Football Bundesliga
Abstract
This study examines how the absence of crowds affects effort-based and skill-based performance in professional football. Using “ghost games” from the 2019/2020 season of the German football Bundesliga as a natural experiment, the analysis follows a within-subject design. It employs Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and linear regression models, including the interaction between home advantage and ghost games. Previous studies showed a decline in home advantage when matches are played without fans. Distinguishing between effort-based and skill-based performance, we argue that this effect is primarily driven by tasks involving physical effort, whereas the technical precision of home teams rather improves in ghost games. This study advances the behavioral understanding of home advantage and highlights how crowd presence can simultaneously motivate and constrain performance.
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References
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