The Combined Effect of Social Capital and Personal Initiative on Women's Self-Employment in Mbarara City
Keywords:
Social capital and personal initiative, Women's Self-Employment, Mbarara City
Abstract
The research investigated the impact of social capital and personal initiative on women who start businesses in Mbarara City, Uganda. The research focused on women's low entrepreneurial participation because self-employment has become recognized as a tool for economic empowerment. The research employed a cross-sectional quantitative survey design to gather data from 382 women entrepreneurs through self-administered structured questionnaires. The research used stratified random sampling to achieve business sector and geographical area representation. SPSS analyzed the data through Pearson correlation and regression models, which tested the study hypotheses. The analysis showed that social capital demonstrated a positive and statistically significant relationship with women's self-employment (r =.478, p <.01) and personal initiative showed a similar positive relationship (r =.563, p <.01). The combined impact of social capital and personal initiative explained 33.3% of the self-employment variations among women in Mbarara City (Adjusted R² =.333). The research indicates that women’s economic success depends on developing social connections and promoting proactive entrepreneurial behaviors through targeted interventions. The research demonstrates through empirical evidence that specific policies and programs must develop social networks and promote personal initiative while eliminating barriers to women’s self-employment in urban Uganda.
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References
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Bullough, A., Hechavarría, D. M., & Brush, C. (2022). Gender norms and women’s entrepreneurship: Exploring the role of culture and institutional support. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 46(1), 5–30.
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Gielnik, M. M., Frese, M., Graf, J. M., & Kampschulte, A. (2012). Creativity in the opportunity identification process and the moderating effect of diversity of information. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(5), 559–576.
Gielnik, M. M., Frese, M., Graf, J. M., & Kampschulte, A. (2012). Creativity in the opportunity identification process and the moderating effect of diversity of information. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(5), 559–576.
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Hamdani, K., Said, M., & Ibrahim, A. (2023). Exploring the nexus between social capital and entrepreneurial activity. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 30(1), 56–73.
Hamdani, M. R., Siddiqui, A. A., & Aslam, M. M. (2023). Motivational antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions: The moderating role of personality traits. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Emerging Economies.
Hassan, M. R., Barungi, P., & Nabukenya, M. (2024). Gender roles and women's access to entrepreneurship in sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Development Studies, 17(1), 89–106.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. Sage Publications.
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2023). Women and the future of work: Building inclusive economies. Geneva: ILO.
Israel, G. D. (1992). Determining Sample Size. University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences, EDIS.
Kawamorita, H., Iwasaki, I., & Tokunaga, M. (2021). Traditional norms and female entrepreneurship in emerging economies. Journal of Development Economics, 151, 102621.
Kawamorita, H., Okabe, T., & Watanabe, R. (2021). The impact of social network structures on entrepreneurial success. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation, 14(2), 98–115.
Kisubi, A., Mugume, M., & Nantongo, M. (2021). Diversity in social capital and innovation in small businesses in East Africa. African Journal of Innovation Studies, 3(1), 12–29.
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
Kriaa, M., Ben Slimane, H., & Ayadi, M. (2020). Social capital density and entrepreneurial growth: An empirical study. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(4), 78–96.
Kusemererwa, E., Tumuhimbise, R., & Kabagenyi, A. (2020). Social capital and supply chain linkages in rural Uganda. Uganda Journal of Business and Management, 6(2), 101–119.
Kusemererwa, J., Twesigye, C., & Atukunda, H. (2020). Social networks and women's micro-enterprises in rural Uganda. Makerere University Journal of Social Studies, 15(1), 78–90.
Kusemererwa, J., Twesigye, C., & Atukunda, H. (2020). Social networks and women's micro-enterprises in rural Uganda. Makerere University Journal of Social Studies, 15(1), 78–90.
Luthans, F., & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2017). Psychological capital: An evidence-based positive approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 339–366.
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Muhammad, Y., Ismail, A., & Abubakar, M. (2020). Social capital and resource access in informal enterprises. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 18(3), 89–104.
Nieuwenhuizen, C. (2022). Network configurations and entrepreneurial performance: A comparative study. South African Journal of Business Management, 53(1), 18–30.
Nieuwenhuizen, C. (2022). Policy interventions to support women entrepreneurs in developing countries. Journal of African Business, 23(1), 56–75.
Nieuwenhuizen, C. (2022). Unlocking social capital for entrepreneurial development in Africa. Journal of African Business, 23(4), 512–530.
Nsereko, I., Isabirye, A. K., & Okello, S. (2021). Personal initiative and entrepreneurial intentions among youth in Uganda. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research.
Nsereko, I., Isabirye, A. K., & Okello, S. (2021). Personal initiative and entrepreneurial intentions among youth in Uganda. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research.
Nsereko, I., Kabonesa, C., & Turyakira, P. (2021). Personal initiative and entrepreneurial success among Ugandan women. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 26(3), 2150023.
Nsereko, I., Kaggwa, J., & Mugisha, S. (2021). The role of bonding and bridging capital in Ugandan entrepreneurial clusters. Journal of African Business, 22(3), 345–365.
Ntshangase, B. (2020). The role of resilience and personal initiative in rural women's entrepreneurship. South African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 12(1), a335.
Rauch, A., & Frese, M. (2007). Let’s put the person back into entrepreneurship research: A meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners' personality traits, business creation, and success. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16(4), 353–385.
Rauch, A., Wiklund, J., Lumpkin, G. T., & Frese, M. (2009). Entrepreneurial orientation and business performance: An assessment of past research and suggestions for the future. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(3), 761–787.
Sahani, R. (2023). Women entrepreneurship in developing countries: Opportunities and challenges. Journal of Business and Economic Development, 8(1), 15–25.
Sahani, R. (2023). Women entrepreneurship in developing countries: Opportunities and challenges. Journal of Business and Economic Development, 8(1), 15–25.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2016). Research Methods for Business: A Skill-Building Approach (7th ed.). Wiley.
Sengupta, S. (2019). The role of community-based networks in promoting local entrepreneurship. Journal of Community Development, 50(4), 481–500.
Setini, M., Saragih, L., Wang, G., & Ghozali, I. (2020). The role of social capital in encouraging women’s entrepreneurship in rural Indonesia. Management Science Letters, 10(16), 3829–3836.
Setyaningrum, R., Suharti, L., & Yuniarti, R. (2023). Weak ties and entrepreneurial opportunities: The hidden value of casual connections. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 26(1), 44–58.
Stephan, U., & Pathak, S. (2016). Beyond cultural values? Cultural leadership ideals and entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 31(5), 505–523.
Wandera, A., Okot, R., & Agaba, P. (2021). Understanding the influence of social networks on youth entrepreneurship in Uganda. Makerere Business Journal, 9(1), 65–84.
Wandera, H. A., Namusonge, G., & Kihoro, J. (2021). Gender roles and women’s entrepreneurial performance in East Africa: A case of Uganda. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 13(2), 203–221.
Wang, Y., Ellison, T., & Hall, M. (2020). Gender gaps in entrepreneurship: Barriers to scaling for women entrepreneurs. Small Business Economics, 54(3), 579–593.
Woldesenbet Beta, K., Ayalew, H., & Mengesha, A. (2024). Social capital and women’s entrepreneurial decisions in Ethiopia. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies.
Al-Qahtani, F., Assiri, A., & Khan, M. (2022). Gender equality and entrepreneurship in the digital age: Policy implications. Journal of Business and Social Science Review, 3(1), 34–48.
Amiri, N. (2022). The role of social networks in entrepreneurial success. Journal of Entrepreneurship Research, 8(2), 45–60.
Babajide, A. A., Olayemi, I. O., & Oluwatobi, S. (2022). Entrepreneurial orientation and innovation among small firms in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development.
Babajide, A., Akinlabi, B., & Okonkwo, C. (2022). Trust, collaboration, and business development in entrepreneurial networks. African Journal of Business Studies, 10(3), 117–132.
Babajide, A., Oke, M., & Adegbite, T. (2022). Women entrepreneurship and economic empowerment in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Economic Policy, 29(2), 34–52.
Babajide, A., Oke, M., & Adegbite, T. (2022). Women entrepreneurship and economic empowerment in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Economic Policy, 29(2), 34–52.
Barugahara, I., & Barungi, J. (2023). Social capital and economic inclusion: A study of informal entrepreneurship in Uganda. East African Social Science Review, 29(1), 33–49.
Barugahara, I., & Barungi, P. (2023). Social and human capital dimensions in entrepreneurial performance in Uganda. African Journal of Economic Policy.
Bormann, K. C., Backs, S., & Hoon, C. (2021). The role of proactive behavior in entrepreneurial teams: A multilevel perspective. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 45(1), 38–66.
Bormann, K., Rowold, J., & Kearney, E. (2021). Network density and innovation: A double-edged sword for entrepreneurs. International Journal of Innovation Management, 25(1), 2150004.
Bridges, L., Tumushabe, D., & Nyakairu, A. (2022). Entrepreneurial role models and identity development in Uganda. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 27(2), 1–20.
Bryman, A. (2016). Social Research Methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Bullough, A., Hechavarría, D. M., & Brush, C. (2022). Gender norms and women’s entrepreneurship: Exploring the role of culture and institutional support. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 46(1), 5–30.
Bullough, A., Renko, M., & Myatt, T. (2022). Strong and weak ties: A dual network approach to entrepreneurial resource acquisition. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 46(5), 1021–1043.
Casabianca, S., Bianchi, S., & Mattei, G. (2023). Intersectionality and female entrepreneurship: A review and research agenda. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 19, e00312.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Dal Mas, F., & Paoloni, P. (2020). Social capital and community entrepreneurship: A European perspective. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management, 24(3), 195–213.
Dal Mas, F., & Paoloni, P. (2020). The role of relational capital in supporting women entrepreneurship: Insights from a cross-country study. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 21(6), 1069–1087.
Dal Mas, F., & Paoloni, P. (2020). Women entrepreneurship and digital platforms: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Business Research, 121, 250–257.
Deshpande, A., & Khanna, S. (2021). Social networks and entrepreneurship: Women’s access to social capital in South Asia. World Development, 138, 105256.
Etikan, I., & Bala, K. (2017). Sampling and sampling methods. Biometrics & Biostatistics International Journal, 5(6), 00149. https://doi.org/10.15406/bbij.2017.05.00149
Frese, M., & Gielnik, M. M. (2014). The psychology of entrepreneurship. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 413–438.
Frese, M., & Gielnik, M. M. (2014). The psychology of entrepreneurship. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 413–438.
Gavigan, J., Ciprikis, K., & Cooney, T. (2020). Enhancing entrepreneurial ecosystems through innovation and initiative. European Journal of Innovation Management, 23(4), 756–775.
Gavigan, J., Ciprikis, K., & Cooney, T. (2020). Enhancing entrepreneurial ecosystems through innovation and initiative. European Journal of Innovation Management, 23(4), 756–775.
Gavigan, J., Karim, H., & Mwine, J. (2020). Network size and self-employment: A multi-country analysis. World Journal of Entrepreneurship Research, 5(4), 22–39.
Gavigan, P., Ninsiima, A., & Tumusiime, R. (2020). Barriers to women's entrepreneurship in Western Uganda: A case of Mbarara City. Mbarara University Press.
Gavigan, P., Ninsiima, A., & Tumusiime, R. (2020). Barriers to women's entrepreneurship in Western Uganda: A case of Mbarara City. Mbarara University Press.
Gielnik, M. M., Frese, M., Graf, J. M., & Kampschulte, A. (2012). Creativity in the opportunity identification process and the moderating effect of diversity of information. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(5), 559–576.
Gielnik, M. M., Frese, M., Graf, J. M., & Kampschulte, A. (2012). Creativity in the opportunity identification process and the moderating effect of diversity of information. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(5), 559–576.
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). (2023). Women’s Entrepreneurship Report 2022/2023. Retrieved from https://www.gemconsortium.org
Hahn, V. C., Frese, M., Binnewies, C., & Schmitt, A. (2012). Happy and proactive? The role of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being in business owners’ initiative. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(1), 97–114.
Hamdani, K., Said, M., & Ibrahim, A. (2023). Exploring the nexus between social capital and entrepreneurial activity. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 30(1), 56–73.
Hamdani, M. R., Siddiqui, A. A., & Aslam, M. M. (2023). Motivational antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions: The moderating role of personality traits. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Emerging Economies.
Hassan, M. R., Barungi, P., & Nabukenya, M. (2024). Gender roles and women's access to entrepreneurship in sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Development Studies, 17(1), 89–106.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. Sage Publications.
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2023). Women and the future of work: Building inclusive economies. Geneva: ILO.
Israel, G. D. (1992). Determining Sample Size. University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences, EDIS.
Kawamorita, H., Iwasaki, I., & Tokunaga, M. (2021). Traditional norms and female entrepreneurship in emerging economies. Journal of Development Economics, 151, 102621.
Kawamorita, H., Okabe, T., & Watanabe, R. (2021). The impact of social network structures on entrepreneurial success. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation, 14(2), 98–115.
Kisubi, A., Mugume, M., & Nantongo, M. (2021). Diversity in social capital and innovation in small businesses in East Africa. African Journal of Innovation Studies, 3(1), 12–29.
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
Kriaa, M., Ben Slimane, H., & Ayadi, M. (2020). Social capital density and entrepreneurial growth: An empirical study. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(4), 78–96.
Kusemererwa, E., Tumuhimbise, R., & Kabagenyi, A. (2020). Social capital and supply chain linkages in rural Uganda. Uganda Journal of Business and Management, 6(2), 101–119.
Kusemererwa, J., Twesigye, C., & Atukunda, H. (2020). Social networks and women's micro-enterprises in rural Uganda. Makerere University Journal of Social Studies, 15(1), 78–90.
Kusemererwa, J., Twesigye, C., & Atukunda, H. (2020). Social networks and women's micro-enterprises in rural Uganda. Makerere University Journal of Social Studies, 15(1), 78–90.
Luthans, F., & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2017). Psychological capital: An evidence-based positive approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 339–366.
Mahato, R., De Vita, L., & Wang, L. (2022). Social capital and women entrepreneurship: A critical review. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 14(1), 71–91.
Mastercard Index of Women Entrepreneurs. (2021). MIWE Report 2021: Advancing inclusive entrepreneurship. Retrieved from https://www.mastercard.com
Mbarara City Commercial Office. (2024). Annual Business Registration Report. Unpublished internal report.
Mueller, S. L., & Thomas, A. S. (2001). Culture and entrepreneurial potential: A nine-country study of locus of control and innovativeness. Journal of Business Venturing, 16(1), 51–75.
Muhammad, Y., Ismail, A., & Abubakar, M. (2020). Social capital and resource access in informal enterprises. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 18(3), 89–104.
Nieuwenhuizen, C. (2022). Network configurations and entrepreneurial performance: A comparative study. South African Journal of Business Management, 53(1), 18–30.
Nieuwenhuizen, C. (2022). Policy interventions to support women entrepreneurs in developing countries. Journal of African Business, 23(1), 56–75.
Nieuwenhuizen, C. (2022). Unlocking social capital for entrepreneurial development in Africa. Journal of African Business, 23(4), 512–530.
Nsereko, I., Isabirye, A. K., & Okello, S. (2021). Personal initiative and entrepreneurial intentions among youth in Uganda. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research.
Nsereko, I., Isabirye, A. K., & Okello, S. (2021). Personal initiative and entrepreneurial intentions among youth in Uganda. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research.
Nsereko, I., Kabonesa, C., & Turyakira, P. (2021). Personal initiative and entrepreneurial success among Ugandan women. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 26(3), 2150023.
Nsereko, I., Kaggwa, J., & Mugisha, S. (2021). The role of bonding and bridging capital in Ugandan entrepreneurial clusters. Journal of African Business, 22(3), 345–365.
Ntshangase, B. (2020). The role of resilience and personal initiative in rural women's entrepreneurship. South African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 12(1), a335.
Rauch, A., & Frese, M. (2007). Let’s put the person back into entrepreneurship research: A meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners' personality traits, business creation, and success. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16(4), 353–385.
Rauch, A., Wiklund, J., Lumpkin, G. T., & Frese, M. (2009). Entrepreneurial orientation and business performance: An assessment of past research and suggestions for the future. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(3), 761–787.
Sahani, R. (2023). Women entrepreneurship in developing countries: Opportunities and challenges. Journal of Business and Economic Development, 8(1), 15–25.
Sahani, R. (2023). Women entrepreneurship in developing countries: Opportunities and challenges. Journal of Business and Economic Development, 8(1), 15–25.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2016). Research Methods for Business: A Skill-Building Approach (7th ed.). Wiley.
Sengupta, S. (2019). The role of community-based networks in promoting local entrepreneurship. Journal of Community Development, 50(4), 481–500.
Setini, M., Saragih, L., Wang, G., & Ghozali, I. (2020). The role of social capital in encouraging women’s entrepreneurship in rural Indonesia. Management Science Letters, 10(16), 3829–3836.
Setyaningrum, R., Suharti, L., & Yuniarti, R. (2023). Weak ties and entrepreneurial opportunities: The hidden value of casual connections. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 26(1), 44–58.
Stephan, U., & Pathak, S. (2016). Beyond cultural values? Cultural leadership ideals and entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 31(5), 505–523.
Wandera, A., Okot, R., & Agaba, P. (2021). Understanding the influence of social networks on youth entrepreneurship in Uganda. Makerere Business Journal, 9(1), 65–84.
Wandera, H. A., Namusonge, G., & Kihoro, J. (2021). Gender roles and women’s entrepreneurial performance in East Africa: A case of Uganda. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 13(2), 203–221.
Wang, Y., Ellison, T., & Hall, M. (2020). Gender gaps in entrepreneurship: Barriers to scaling for women entrepreneurs. Small Business Economics, 54(3), 579–593.
Woldesenbet Beta, K., Ayalew, H., & Mengesha, A. (2024). Social capital and women’s entrepreneurial decisions in Ethiopia. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies.
Published
2025-04-28
How to Cite
Katarangi, A. K., Musiita, B., Wanito, A. D., & Akampwera, S. (2025). The Combined Effect of Social Capital and Personal Initiative on Women’s Self-Employment in Mbarara City. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 17(1(J), 119-130. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v17i1(J).4460
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Research Paper
Copyright (c) 2025 Asaph Kabubura Katarangi, Benjamin Musiita, Atwine Daniel Wanito, Sheila Akampwera
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