Benefits of an Irrigation Scheme and Its Determinants to Surrounding Peripheral Rural Communities
Keywords:
Irrigation Scheme, peripheral communities, benefit
Abstract
The objective of the study was to identify the extent of benefits and their determinants to communities surrounding the Qamata Irrigation Scheme (QIS) in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The study used a quantitative based cross-sectional survey of 197 households within a radius of 20 km from the QIS. Multiple sampling methods were utilized where the villages were randomly and the households conveniently selected. A semi-structured pre-coded questionnaire was utilized to collect the data which was analyzed using descriptive statistics and multinomial logit regression. The study identified 14 discriminant benefits ranging from job opportunities, income increment food diversification to share cropping. Sixty-two percent of the households identified less than 5 benefits, whilst 27% and 11% identified 6-10 and 11-14 benefits respectively. Determinants of a surrounding household to attain benefits were significantly influenced by the distance from the scheme, the main source of income and gender of household head (P<0.01); marital and employment status (P<0.05); and access to farm land (P<0.1). The study concludes that the level of benefit diffused to surrounding households is based on socio-economic factors. The study recommends conscientization of surrounding communities on the peripheral benefits accrued from the proximity to the QIS, achievable through awareness initiatives.
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References
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ARDRI. (1996). Qamata irrigation scheme. The University of Fort Hare, Faculty of Agriculture and ARDRI, Alice, South Africa.
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Chazovachii, B. (2012). The impact of small-scale irrigation schemes on rural livelihoods: The case of Panganai irrigation scheme, Bikita District, Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(4), 217-231.
Chitsa, G. (2014). Analysis of entrepreneurial behaviour of smallholder irrigation farmers: Empirical evidence from Qamata Irrigation Scheme. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Univerity of Fort Hare, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Alice, South Africa.
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Cousins, B. (2012). Smallholder irrigation schemes, agrarian reform and accumulation from below: Evidence from Tugela Ferry, KwaZulu-Natal. Paper presented at the Conference on Strategies to Overcome Poverty and Inequality: Towards Carnegie III. Cape Town, South Africa, 3-7 September: University of Cape Town.
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de Fraiture, C. & Giordano, M. (2014). Small private irrigation: A thriving but overlooked sector. Agriculture Water Management, 131, 167-174.
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Dube, K. (2012). The socio-economic impact assessment of Lower Gweru Irrigation Scheme in Gweru, Zimbabwe. University of South Africa, Department of Geography. University of South Africa.
Fanadzo, M., Chiduza, C. & Mneki, P. N. (2010). Overview of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa: Relationship between farmer crop management practices and performance. African Journal of Agriculture Research, 5(25), 3514-3523.
Fanadzo, M., Chiduza, C., Mnekeni, P. S., van der Stoep, I. & Stevens, J. (2010). Crop production management practices as a cause for low water productivity at Zanyokwe Irrigation Scheme. Water South Africa, 36(1), 27-36.
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Hirschl, T. A., Altobelli, J. & Rank, M. (2003). Does marriage increase the odds of affluence? Exploring the life course possibilities. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65, 627-938.
Husain, I. (2007). Direct and indirect benefits and potential disbenefits of irrigation: Evidence and lessons. Irrigation and drainage, 56(2-3), 179-194.
Hussain, L. (2004). Agriculture water and poverty linkages. Case studies on large and small systems. In A. D. Bank (Ed.), Water and poverty: The realities, experiences from the field (pp. 55-73). Manilla: Asian Development Bank.
Kibirige, D. & Obi, A. (2015). Agricultural efficiency of smallholder farmers in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, 3(9), 296-289.
Kodua-Agyekum, C. (2009). The transfer of technology to the rural poor: The case of Qamata irrigation scheme in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Department of Policy and Development Studies. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.
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Lipton, M., Litchfield, J. & Faurès, J. M. (2003). The effects of irrigation on poverty: A framework for analysis. Water Policy, 5-6, 413-427.
Loxton, Venn and Associates. (1998). The Qamata Irrigation Scheme, Project Development Plan. Loxton, Veen and Associates for Qamata Farmers Cooperative.
Machethe, C. L., Mollel, N. M., Ayisi, K., Mashatola, M. B., Anim, F. D. & Vanasche, F. (2004). Smallholder irrigation and agricultural development in the Olifants basin of Limpopo Province: Management, transfer, productivity, profitability and food security issues. Water Research Council. Pretoria, South Africa: WRC.
Maddison, D. (2006). The perception of and adaptation to climate change in Africa. CEEPA Discussion Paper No. 10, University of Pretoria, Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.
Marcella, M. P. & Eltahir, E. A. (2013). Introducing an irrigation scheme to a regional climate model: A case study over West Africa. Journal of Climate Change, 27, 5708-5723.
Mombeshora, S. (2003). Water and livelihoods: The case of Tsovani Irrigation Scheme in Sangwe, Southeastern Zimbabwe. Sustainable Livelihoods in Southern Africa: Institutions,
Mtonga, M. (2014). The impact of small-scale irrigation projects on food security: The case of Inkosikazi Irrigation Project instituted by World Vision in Wards 4 and 5 in the Bubi District, Zimbabwe. MA, University of South Africa , Department of Development Studies.
Mujuru, J. T. (2014). Entrepreneurial agriculture and human development: A case study of Dotito Irrigation Scheme, Mt Darwin. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(4), 121-131.
Mutsvangwa, T. & Doranalli, K. (n.d.). Agriculture and sustainable development. 2006, Netherlands: The Hague University Press.
Obi, A. (Ed.). (2011). Institutional constraints to small farmer development in Southern Africa. Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publisher,
Oni, S. A., Maliwichi, L. L. & Obadire, O. S. (2011). Assessing the contribution of smallholder irrigation to household food security, in comparison to dryland farming in Vhembe district of Limpopo Province, South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(10), 2188-2197.
Ortmann, G. F. & King, R. P. (2010). Research on agri-food supply chains in Southern Africa involving small-scale farmers: Current status and future possibilities. Agrekon, 49(4), 397-417.
Pittock, J., Bjournlund, H., Stirzaker, R. & Rooyen, V. (2017). Communal irrigation systems in South-Eastern Africa: Findings on productivity and profitability. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 33(5), 839-847.
Reinders, F. B., van der Stoep, I., Lecler, M. L., Greaves, K. R., Vahrmeijer, J. T., Benade, N. & Ascough, G. (2010). Standards and guidelines for improved efficiency of irrigation water use from dam wall release to root zone application: Guidelines. Water Research Commission. Pretoria, South Africa: WRC.
Schwab, J. A. (2002). Multinomial logistic regression: Basic relationship and complete problems.
Shah, T., van Koppen, B., Merrey, D., de Lange, M. & Samad, M. (2002). Institutional alternatives in African smallholder irrigation: Lessons from international experience with Irrigation Management Transfer. IWMI Research Report 60, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Sinyolo, S., Mudhara, M. & Wale, E. (2014). The impact of smallholder irrigation on household welfare: The case of Tugela Ferry irrigation scheme in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Water South Africa, 40(1), 146-147.
StatsSA. (2016). Agricultural households: Community Survey. Pretoria, South Africa.
Stirzaker, R., Mbakwe, I. & Mziray, N. (2017). A soil water and solute learning system for small-scale irrigators in Africa. International Journal of Water Resource Development, 33(5), 788-803.
Thangata, P. H., Hindebradt, P. E. & Gladwin, C. H. (2002). Modelling agroforestry adoption and household decision making in Malawi.
Tracor. (1989). Lati Irrigation Scheme: Operating and capital budget1989-1990. Department of Agriculture and Forestry, Umtata, Eastern Cape Province.
Tshuma, M. & Monde, N. (2012). A socio-economic impact assessment of a project to identify and implement best management practices at Zanyokwe irrigation scheme at farm level. Water South Africa, 38(5), 783-792.
van Averbeke, W. (2008). Best management practices for sustainable farming on selected irrigation schemes and surrounding areas through participatory adaptive research in Limpopo Province. Water Research Commission. Pretoria, South Africa: WRC.
van Averbeke, W., Denison, J. & Mnkeni, P. N. (2011). Smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa: A review of knowledge generated by the Water Research Commission. WRC 40-Year Celebration Special Edition, 37(5), 797-808.
Vink, N. & Rooyen, J. (2009). The economic performance of agriculture in South Africa since 1994: Implications for food security. Development Bank of Southern Africa, Development Planning Division. Halfway House.
Xie, H., Wielgosz, B. & Ringler, C. (2014). Estimating the potential for expanding smallholder irrigation in Sub Saharan Africa. Agricultural Water Management, 131, 183-193.
You, L., Ringler, C., Nelson, G., Wood-Sichra, U., Robertson, R., Wood, S. & Sun, Y. (2010). What is the irrigation potential for Africa? A combined biophysical and socio-economic approach. IFPRI, Discussion Paper 00993. Washington D. C,
ARDRI. (1996). Qamata irrigation scheme. The University of Fort Hare, Faculty of Agriculture and ARDRI, Alice, South Africa.
Bembridge, T. J. (1986). Problems and lessons from irrigation projects in less developed countries of Africa. Development Southern Africa, 2(2), 600-618.
Bhattarai, M., Barker, R. & Narayanamoorthy, A. (2007). Who benefits from irrigation development in India? Implication of irrigation multipliers for irrigation financing. Irrigation and Drainage, 56(2-3), 207-225.
Birendra, K. C., Schultz, B. & Prasad, K. (2007). Water management to meet present and future food demand. Irrigation and Drainage, 60(3), 348-359.
Bouis, H. E. (2007). The potential of genetically modified food crops to improve human nutrition in developing countries. Journal of Development Studies, 43, 79-96.
Briceño-Garmendia, C., Smits, K. & Foster, V. (2008). Fiscal costs of infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank. Washington DC: Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic.
Buthelezi, T. C. (2013). Pro-poor value chain governance in the Mtateni Irrigation Scheme. Unpublished MC Thesis, University of Western Cape, Faculty of Economic and Management, Cape Town, South Africa.
Chazovachii, B. (2012). The impact of small-scale irrigation schemes on rural livelihoods: The case of Panganai irrigation scheme, Bikita District, Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(4), 217-231.
Chitsa, G. (2014). Analysis of entrepreneurial behaviour of smallholder irrigation farmers: Empirical evidence from Qamata Irrigation Scheme. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Univerity of Fort Hare, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Alice, South Africa.
Chiwaya, W. G. (2013). Contribution of small-scale irrigation schemes to the livelihood of rural households. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Mzumbe University.
Chopra, M. (2004). Food security, rural development and health equity in Southern Africa. Discussion Paper Number 22, University of Western Cape, Regional Network for Equity in Health in Southern Africa (EQUINET).
Cousins, B. (2012). Smallholder irrigation schemes, agrarian reform and accumulation from below: Evidence from Tugela Ferry, KwaZulu-Natal. Paper presented at the Conference on Strategies to Overcome Poverty and Inequality: Towards Carnegie III. Cape Town, South Africa, 3-7 September: University of Cape Town.
Cousins, B. (2013). Smallholder irrigation schemes, agrarian reform and accumulation from above and from below in South Africa. Journal of Agrarian Change, 13(1), 116-139.
de Fraiture, C. & Giordano, M. (2014). Small private irrigation: A thriving but overlooked sector. Agriculture Water Management, 131, 167-174.
de Hartigh, W. (2016, May 11). Agriculture is still creating employment in South Africa.
Denison, J. & Manona, S. (2007). Principles, approaches and guidelines for the participatory revitalization of smallholder irrigation schemes: Volume 1-A rough guide for irrigation development practitioners. Water Research Commission. Pretoria, South Africa: WRC.
Domenech, L. & Ringler, C. (2013). The impact of irrigation on nutrition health and gender: A review paper with insights for Africa south of the Sahara. IIFPRI Discussion Paper 01259, International Food Policy Research Institute, Environment and Production Technology Division.
Dowgert, M. F. (2010). The impact of irrigated agriculture on a stable food supply.
Dube, K. (2012). The socio-economic impact assessment of Lower Gweru Irrigation Scheme in Gweru, Zimbabwe. University of South Africa, Department of Geography. University of South Africa.
Fanadzo, M., Chiduza, C. & Mneki, P. N. (2010). Overview of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa: Relationship between farmer crop management practices and performance. African Journal of Agriculture Research, 5(25), 3514-3523.
Fanadzo, M., Chiduza, C., Mnekeni, P. S., van der Stoep, I. & Stevens, J. (2010). Crop production management practices as a cause for low water productivity at Zanyokwe Irrigation Scheme. Water South Africa, 36(1), 27-36.
FAO. (2000). South Africa: Affordable irrigation technologies for smallholders: Opportunities for technology adaptation and capacity building. Programme formulation. Food and Agriculture Organization, Environment and Production Technology Division. Rome, Italy: IPTRID Secretariat.
FAOSTAT. (2017). Agricultural area devoted to irrigation agriculture in Southern Africa. FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization.
FAOSTAT. (2017). Agricultural area devoted to irrigation in Eastern, Middle, Southern and Western Africa. Food and Agriculture Organization. FAO.
Gidi, L. S. (2013). Rural households' livelihood strategies and opportunities with regard to farming: A case of Intsika Yethu Local Municipality. University of Fort Hare, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension. Alice, South Africa.
Goldblatt, A. (2011). Agriculture: Facts and trends: South Africa. (T. Bormann, Ed.) World Wide Fund.
Gundu, M. (2009). The effect of literacy on access to and utilisation of agricultural information for household food security and Chirau communal lands in Zimbabwe. Unpublished MSc Thesis, University of Fort Hare, Department of Library and Information Science, Alice, South Africa.
Hirschl, T. A., Altobelli, J. & Rank, M. (2003). Does marriage increase the odds of affluence? Exploring the life course possibilities. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65, 627-938.
Husain, I. (2007). Direct and indirect benefits and potential disbenefits of irrigation: Evidence and lessons. Irrigation and drainage, 56(2-3), 179-194.
Hussain, L. (2004). Agriculture water and poverty linkages. Case studies on large and small systems. In A. D. Bank (Ed.), Water and poverty: The realities, experiences from the field (pp. 55-73). Manilla: Asian Development Bank.
Kibirige, D. & Obi, A. (2015). Agricultural efficiency of smallholder farmers in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, 3(9), 296-289.
Kodua-Agyekum, C. (2009). The transfer of technology to the rural poor: The case of Qamata irrigation scheme in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Department of Policy and Development Studies. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.
Lent, P., Scogings, P. F. & van Averbeke, W. (Eds.). (2000). Natural resource and policy in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa: Overview Paper (Vol. Working Paper 4). Alice, South Africa, South Africa: Agricultural and Rural Development Research Institute.
Lipton, M. (1996). Rural reforms and rural livelihoods: The context of international experience. In M. Lipton, M. de Klerk, & M. Lipton (Eds.), Land, labour and livelihoods in rural South Africa. Dalbridge, Durban, South Africa: Indicator Press.
Lipton, M., Litchfield, J. & Faurès, J. M. (2003). The effects of irrigation on poverty: A framework for analysis. Water Policy, 5-6, 413-427.
Loxton, Venn and Associates. (1998). The Qamata Irrigation Scheme, Project Development Plan. Loxton, Veen and Associates for Qamata Farmers Cooperative.
Machethe, C. L., Mollel, N. M., Ayisi, K., Mashatola, M. B., Anim, F. D. & Vanasche, F. (2004). Smallholder irrigation and agricultural development in the Olifants basin of Limpopo Province: Management, transfer, productivity, profitability and food security issues. Water Research Council. Pretoria, South Africa: WRC.
Maddison, D. (2006). The perception of and adaptation to climate change in Africa. CEEPA Discussion Paper No. 10, University of Pretoria, Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.
Marcella, M. P. & Eltahir, E. A. (2013). Introducing an irrigation scheme to a regional climate model: A case study over West Africa. Journal of Climate Change, 27, 5708-5723.
Mombeshora, S. (2003). Water and livelihoods: The case of Tsovani Irrigation Scheme in Sangwe, Southeastern Zimbabwe. Sustainable Livelihoods in Southern Africa: Institutions,
Mtonga, M. (2014). The impact of small-scale irrigation projects on food security: The case of Inkosikazi Irrigation Project instituted by World Vision in Wards 4 and 5 in the Bubi District, Zimbabwe. MA, University of South Africa , Department of Development Studies.
Mujuru, J. T. (2014). Entrepreneurial agriculture and human development: A case study of Dotito Irrigation Scheme, Mt Darwin. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(4), 121-131.
Mutsvangwa, T. & Doranalli, K. (n.d.). Agriculture and sustainable development. 2006, Netherlands: The Hague University Press.
Obi, A. (Ed.). (2011). Institutional constraints to small farmer development in Southern Africa. Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publisher,
Oni, S. A., Maliwichi, L. L. & Obadire, O. S. (2011). Assessing the contribution of smallholder irrigation to household food security, in comparison to dryland farming in Vhembe district of Limpopo Province, South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(10), 2188-2197.
Ortmann, G. F. & King, R. P. (2010). Research on agri-food supply chains in Southern Africa involving small-scale farmers: Current status and future possibilities. Agrekon, 49(4), 397-417.
Pittock, J., Bjournlund, H., Stirzaker, R. & Rooyen, V. (2017). Communal irrigation systems in South-Eastern Africa: Findings on productivity and profitability. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 33(5), 839-847.
Reinders, F. B., van der Stoep, I., Lecler, M. L., Greaves, K. R., Vahrmeijer, J. T., Benade, N. & Ascough, G. (2010). Standards and guidelines for improved efficiency of irrigation water use from dam wall release to root zone application: Guidelines. Water Research Commission. Pretoria, South Africa: WRC.
Schwab, J. A. (2002). Multinomial logistic regression: Basic relationship and complete problems.
Shah, T., van Koppen, B., Merrey, D., de Lange, M. & Samad, M. (2002). Institutional alternatives in African smallholder irrigation: Lessons from international experience with Irrigation Management Transfer. IWMI Research Report 60, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Sinyolo, S., Mudhara, M. & Wale, E. (2014). The impact of smallholder irrigation on household welfare: The case of Tugela Ferry irrigation scheme in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Water South Africa, 40(1), 146-147.
StatsSA. (2016). Agricultural households: Community Survey. Pretoria, South Africa.
Stirzaker, R., Mbakwe, I. & Mziray, N. (2017). A soil water and solute learning system for small-scale irrigators in Africa. International Journal of Water Resource Development, 33(5), 788-803.
Thangata, P. H., Hindebradt, P. E. & Gladwin, C. H. (2002). Modelling agroforestry adoption and household decision making in Malawi.
Tracor. (1989). Lati Irrigation Scheme: Operating and capital budget1989-1990. Department of Agriculture and Forestry, Umtata, Eastern Cape Province.
Tshuma, M. & Monde, N. (2012). A socio-economic impact assessment of a project to identify and implement best management practices at Zanyokwe irrigation scheme at farm level. Water South Africa, 38(5), 783-792.
van Averbeke, W. (2008). Best management practices for sustainable farming on selected irrigation schemes and surrounding areas through participatory adaptive research in Limpopo Province. Water Research Commission. Pretoria, South Africa: WRC.
van Averbeke, W., Denison, J. & Mnkeni, P. N. (2011). Smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa: A review of knowledge generated by the Water Research Commission. WRC 40-Year Celebration Special Edition, 37(5), 797-808.
Vink, N. & Rooyen, J. (2009). The economic performance of agriculture in South Africa since 1994: Implications for food security. Development Bank of Southern Africa, Development Planning Division. Halfway House.
Xie, H., Wielgosz, B. & Ringler, C. (2014). Estimating the potential for expanding smallholder irrigation in Sub Saharan Africa. Agricultural Water Management, 131, 183-193.
You, L., Ringler, C., Nelson, G., Wood-Sichra, U., Robertson, R., Wood, S. & Sun, Y. (2010). What is the irrigation potential for Africa? A combined biophysical and socio-economic approach. IFPRI, Discussion Paper 00993. Washington D. C,
Published
2018-12-22
How to Cite
Masela, Z., Mushunje, A., Ngarava, S., Taruvinga, A., & Tatsvarei, S. (2018). Benefits of an Irrigation Scheme and Its Determinants to Surrounding Peripheral Rural Communities. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 10(6(J), 79-90. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v10i6(J).2596
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Copyright (c) 2018 Zandile Masela, Abbyssinia Mushunje, Saul Ngarava, Amon Taruvinga, Simbarashe Tatsvarei
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