Effects of Brain Drain on the South African Health Sector; Analysis of the Dynamics of its Push Factors
Keywords:
Immigration, Brain drain, South Africa, Socio-economic Development
Abstract
While there has been a plethora of studies that addresses migration in Africa, many have yet to successfully unpack the effects of brain drain on the South African health sector. Using textual analysis of the available literature relevant to the topic under consideration; this work seeks to identify the major structural and socio-economic push factors that drive the migration of health professionals in South Africa, relying on Revestain’s laws of migration and Lee’s push/pull theory of migration. The study also looks at explaining other factors that contribute to the migration of health professionals in South Africa. We argue that for South Africa to retain health professionals, the government needs to increase the training of health workers, improve their working conditions and security, upgrade infrastructure and ensure availability of resources as well as develop a more open immigration policy prioritizing skilled immigration.
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References
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Manyisaa, Z. & van Aswegenb, E. (2017). Factors affecting working conditions in public hospitals: A literature review. International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences, 6, 28-38.
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Medical-Chronicle (2016). Nursing skills shortage in SA. https://www.medicalchronicle.co.za/Accessed 01 May 2017.
Moodie, A. (2010). South Africa: Fewer doctors graduate. http://www.universityworldnews.com Accessed on 20 April 2017.
Mokoka, E., Oosthuizen, M. & Ehlers, V. (2010). Retaining professional nurses in South Africa: nurse managers' perspectives: original research. Journal of Interdisciplinary Health Sciences, 15(1), 484-492.
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Mortensen, J. (2008). Poverty and poverty reduction in sub-Saharan Africa: An overview of the issues. Danish institute for international studies: working paper No 2008/18. Copenhagen.
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Mugimu, C. (2010). Brain drain to brain gain: What are the implications for higher education in Africa? Comparative & International Higher Education, 2(2), 37-42
Mwiti, L. (2015). Africa's doctors, feeling extremely unloved, are leaving in droves. It could get worse. Mail & Guardian, https://mg.co.zaAccessed 11 April 2017.
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Smith, M. & Jury, A. (2017). Workforce Development Theory and Practice in the Mental Health Sector. IGI Global.
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Sue. (2005). Factsheet 5: Skills migration and the brain drain in South Africa. http://www.hsrc.ac.za/Accessed 13 October 2016.
Taylor, J. (2006). International migration and economic development. Paper presented at International symposium on international migration and development, Turin, Italy, 28-30 June 2006.
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Aluttis, C., Bishaw, T. & Frank, M. (2014).The workforce for health in a global shortages and international migration. World Health Organization Publication. http://www.who.intAccessed 12 April 2017.
Bateman, C. (2013). Doctor shortages: Unpacking the ‘Cuban solution. South African Medical Journal, 103(9), 603-605.
Battistella, G. (2014). Global and Asian Perspectives on International Migration Switzerland: Springer International Publishing
Berkwits, M. & Inui, T. (1998).Making use of qualitative research techniques. Journal of general internal medicine, 13(3), 195-199.
Bisseker, C. (2017). The future is now. Business Live. 13th April 2017. https://www.businesslive.co.zaAccessed 25 April 2017.
Booysen, J., & Tswanya, Y. (2015). Brain drain looms for struggling SA. IOL, 12th December. http://www.iol.co.za Accessed 02 June 2017.
Brandsouthafrica. (2002). Health care in South Africa. https://www.brandsouthafrica.com. Accessed 27 April 2017.
Broomberg, J. (2011). Solving healthcare challenges in South Africa. http://www.leader.co.za. Accessed 11 October 2016.
Buchannan, N. (2012). An Educated Population Is Essential to a Nation’s Prosperity, yet Some Politicians Are Demonizing Our Educational System for Political Advantage. https://verdict.justia.comAccessed 5 June 2016.
Castro, E., Spitzer, D., Kabamalan, M., Sanchez, M., Caricativo, R., Runnels, V., Labonté, R. M. & Bourgeault, I. (2017). An examination of the causes, consequences, and policy responses to the migration of highly trained health personnel from the Philippines: the high cost of living/leaving-a mixed method study. Human Resources for Health, 15(1)DOI: 10.1186/s12960-017-0198-z
Centre for Development and Enterprise. (2000). Why is South Africa afraid of skilled immigrants when they are essential for enhancing economic growth? http://www.cde.org.za/Accessed 6 June 2016.
Chan, M. (2015).Global nursing: reshaping nursing for the future needs of citizens. Keynote address at the International Council of Nurses Conference Global citizen, Seoul, Republic of Korea 20 June 2015.
Chimanikire, D. (2005). Brain Drain: Causes and Economic Consequences for Africa. Paper presented at the 27th AAPAM Annual Roundtable Conference, 5-9 December Livingstone, Zambia.
Cloete, M. (2015). Why nurses and teachers leave our shores: Emigration or relocation is no longer merely a white phenomenon. https://www.hst.org.za Accessed 8 May 2017.
Cohen, R. (1996). Introduction, in Cohen, R. (ed.) Theories of Migration. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, xi-xvii.
Cowen, K. (2017). Ngwelezana Hospital becoming a ‘pit of hell’. http://zululandobserver.co.za Accessed 20 April 2017.
Czaika, M. & de Haas, J. (2014). The Globalization of Migration: Has the World Become More Migratory. Journal of International Migration Review, 48(2), 283–323
Department of labour. (2008). The shortage of medical doctors in South Africa. http://www.labour.gov.zaAccessed 01 June 2016.
Dovlo, D. (2005). Wastage in the health workforce: some perspectives from African countries. Human Resources for Health, 3(6), 1-9.
Duncan, N. (2012). Immigration policymaking in the global era: In pursuit of global talent. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Ehman, A. & Sullivan, P. (2001). South Africa appeals to Canada to stop recruiting its MDs. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 164(3), 387–388
Fin24. (2014). SA among worst hit by brain drain. http://www.fin24.com/ Accessed 14 April 2017.
Flinkman, M., Bouret, U. & Salanterä, S. (2013). Young Registered Nurses' Intention to Leave the Profession and Professional Turnover in Early Career: A Qualitative Case Study. Hindawi Publishing Corporation ISRN Nursing.
Govender, S. & Appel, M. (2006). Nursing profession faces numerous challenges. IOL, 12 May. http://www.iol.co.zaAccessed 11 April 2017.
Green, J. (2017). Fitch downgrades SA to junk status, https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2017-04-07-breaking-fitch-downgrades-sa-to-junk-status/#.WTUR8k0krIU Accessed 10 April 2017.
Grootes, S. (2014). Minister Motsoaledi, we need more medical doctors. Mail & Guardian, 2 October. 2014https://www.dailymaverick.co.zaAccessed 01 May 2017.
Health24. (2011). SA hospital shocker. Health24, 6th July 2011.http://www.health24.com Accessed 11 April 2017.
Jennissen, R. (2004). Macro-economic determinants of international migration in Europe. Dutch University Press.
Krost, P. (2000). Top nurses leave SA stranded. IOL.http://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/ Accessed 11 April 2017.
Kurekova, L. (2011). Theories of migration: Conceptual review and empirical testing in the context of the EU East-West flows. Paper presented at the Interdisciplinary conference on migration, Economic change, social change, April 6-9, 2011 University College London.
Kuznetsov, Y. (2006). Diaspora networks and the international migration of skills: how countries can draw on their talent abroad. Washington: The World Bank.
Labonté, R., Sanders, D., Mathole, T., Crush, J., Chikanda, A., Dambisya, Y., Runnels, V., Packer, C., MacKenzie, A., Murphy, G. & Bourgeault, I. L. (2015). Health worker migration from South Africa: causes, consequences and policy responses. Human resources for health, 13(1).DOI: 10.1186/s12960-015-0093-4
Lee, E. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, Springer, 3(1), 47-57.
LeMay, M. (2004). US immigration: A reference handbook. ABC-CLIO. https://books.google.co.za/books Accessed 30 May 2016.
Mahadea, D. & Simson, R. (2010).The challenge of low employment economic growth in South Africa: 1994 -2008.http://www.scielo.org.zaAccessed 02 June 2016.
Mail & Guardian. (2009). SA state hospitals in crisis. https://mg.co.zaAccessed 11 April 2016.
Mail & Guardian. (2009). Vavi: Doctors' salaries awful. https://mg.co.zaAccessed 11 April 2016.
Makhubu, N. (2016) Nurses leaving SA in droves. IOL, 2 February 2016. http://www.iol.co.za/ Accessed 11 April 2017.
Makoni, M. (2009). South Africa: Doctor brain drain continues. (Online)http://www.universityworldnews.com/ Accessed 12 April 2016.
Manyisaa, Z. & van Aswegenb, E. (2017). Factors affecting working conditions in public hospitals: A literature review. International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences, 6, 28-38.
McCarthy, N. (2015). Which Countries Invest The Most In Education? https://www.statista.com Accessed on 2 June 2016.
Medical-Chronicle (2016). Nursing skills shortage in SA. https://www.medicalchronicle.co.za/Accessed 01 May 2017.
Moodie, A. (2010). South Africa: Fewer doctors graduate. http://www.universityworldnews.com Accessed on 20 April 2017.
Mokoka, E., Oosthuizen, M. & Ehlers, V. (2010). Retaining professional nurses in South Africa: nurse managers' perspectives: original research. Journal of Interdisciplinary Health Sciences, 15(1), 484-492.
MoneyMarketing. (2016). The real cost of the skills shortage in the SA health sector. http://www.moneymarketing.co.za/Accessed 30 May 2016.
Mortensen, J. (2008). Poverty and poverty reduction in sub-Saharan Africa: An overview of the issues. Danish institute for international studies: working paper No 2008/18. Copenhagen.
Motsoaledi, A. (2017) Brain drain continues despite conventions on medical poaching, Medical Brief, Africa’s Media Medical Digest. 10 May. From http://www.medicalbrief.co.za/archives/brain-drain-continues-despite-conventions-medical-poaching/ Accessed 23 May 2017.
Mugimu, C. (2010). Brain drain to brain gain: What are the implications for higher education in Africa? Comparative & International Higher Education, 2(2), 37-42
Mwiti, L. (2015). Africa's doctors, feeling extremely unloved, are leaving in droves. It could get worse. Mail & Guardian, https://mg.co.zaAccessed 11 April 2017.
News24. (2012). Healthcare dilemma in South Africa. http://www.news24.com/ Accessed 11 April 2017.
News24. (2014). Nurse raped, stabbed at Helen Joseph hospital. http://www.news24.com/ Accessed 11 March 2017.
OECD. (2003). Trends in International Migration 2003.https://books.google.co.za/books Accessed 01 May 2017
Oosthuizen, M. & Ehlers, V. (2007).Factors that may influence South African nurses’ decisions to emigrate. Health SA Gesondheid, 12(2), 14-25.
Pang, T., Lansang, M. & Haines, A. (2002). Brain drain and health professionals. British Medical Journal, 2, 324-499
Penuel, B., Statler, M. & Hagen, R. (2013). Encyclopedia of Crisis Management, Vol. 1.Sage Publications.
Pieterse, C. (2016). Too few specialised nurses. News24, 31 May. http://www.news24.com/Accessed 11 March 2017.
Pillay, R. (2008). Work satisfaction of professional nurses in South Africa: a comparative analysis of the public and private sectors. Human Resources for Health, 7(15). DOI: 10.1186/1478-4491-7-15
Pillay, T. (2017). Poor hospital conditions could cost Durban man his arm. Timeslive, http://www.health24.comAccessed 11 April 2017.
Radio702. (2016). Salaries of nurses in South Africa were and are appalling. http://www.702.co.zaAccessed 01 May 2017.
Rasool, F. & Botha, C. (2011). The nature, extent and effect of skills shortages on skills migration in South Africa: original research. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 9(1), 287-298.
Scheffler, R., Liu, J., Kinfu, Y. & Dal Poz, M. (2008).Forecasting the global shortage of physicians: an economic-and needs-based approach. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 86(7).
Section27. (2013). The Gauteng health system in crisis - SECTION27. http://www.politicsweb.co.za Accessed 7 May 2017.
Shattuck, M., Bidwell, P., Thomas, S., Wyness, L., Blaauw, D. & Ditlopo, P. (2008). Motivation and retention of health workers in developing countries: a systematic review. BMC health services research, 8(1). doi: 10.1186/1472-6963-8-247.
Shinn, D. (2004). African migration and brain drain, Slovenia. Institute for African Studies and Slovenia Global Action. Working paper series no. 12. Ljubljana: https://sites.google.com Accessed 21 March 2016.
Simpson, T. (2010). South Africa's brave new world: the beloved country since the end of apartheid. Random House South Africa, Penguin
Smetherahm, J. & Laurance, J. (2003). UK still poaching SA nurses, despite ban. IOL, 13 May. http://www.iol.co.zaAccessed 11 April 2017.
Smith, M. & Jury, A. (2017). Workforce Development Theory and Practice in the Mental Health Sector. IGI Global.
Sparke, M. (2012). Introducing globalization: Ties, tensions, and uneven integration. USA. John Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Sue. (2005). Factsheet 5: Skills migration and the brain drain in South Africa. http://www.hsrc.ac.za/Accessed 13 October 2016.
Taylor, J. (2006). International migration and economic development. Paper presented at International symposium on international migration and development, Turin, Italy, 28-30 June 2006.
The Economist. (2006). The rich, the poor and the growing gap between them. http://www.economist.comAccessed 20 April 2017
The-Citizen. (2016). 70% of SA nurses have a secondary job. The-citizen, http://citizen.co.zaAccessed 11 April 2016.
UNICEF. (2007). The state of the world's children 2008: Child survival. UNICEF.
Vrbicek, N. (2015). Education in South Africa: One Learner at a Time. http://www.simanye.co.za[Accessed 25 May 2016.
Watson, D., Hollister, R., Stroud, E. & Babcock, E. (2011). The engaged university: International Perspectives on civic engagements. Taylor & Francis.
World Health Organization. (2014). A universal truth: no health without a workforce. http://www.who.int/Accessed 13 April 2017.
World Health Organization.(2015). World Health Statistics 2015.http://www.who.int/Accessed 13 April 2016.
York, G. (2011). Brain drain of African doctors has saved Canada $400-million. Global-Mail https://www.theglobeandmail.com Accessed 11 April 2017.
Published
2017-09-04
How to Cite
Mlambo, V. H., & Adetiba, T. C. (2017). Effects of Brain Drain on the South African Health Sector; Analysis of the Dynamics of its Push Factors. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 9(4(J), 62-72. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v9i4(J).1822
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Copyright (c) 2017 Victor H. Mlambo, Toyin Cotties Adetiba
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