Leadership Tendencies of Pakistanis: Exploring Similarities and Differences based on Age and Gender

The management styles of people are influenced by their cultural contexts and urgency of completing tasks. For example, it is expected that people will get things done in a speedy manner when their jobs are on the line, but they will still try to minimize the negative impact to their relationships. To explore the leadership tendencies of working adults in the Pakistani workplace, this paper focused on comparing the leadership orientation of 232 respondents based on their age and gender. Pakistanis have a significantly higher score on task orientation. Their relationship orientation score is also on the moderately high range. The high score on both leadership dimensions reflects on their cultural orientation. Practical suggestions for expatriates and implications for future studies are presented.


Introduction
In the competitive world of global business, it is important for managers and expatriates alike to reflect on their relationships with people of different cultures and examine how differences in context can lead to cultural misunderstanding for overseas employees living or working in Pakistan. Managers of international operations should be aware of the importance of cultural contexts in each country as it indicates the level in which communication occurs outside of verbal discussion (Huang and Mujtaba, 2010;Mujtaba and Sadat, 2010;Mujtaba, Chen, and Yunshan, 2010;Mujtaba and Khazem, 2009;and Tajaddini and Mujtaba, 2009). Understanding the effect of the differences in context provides a knowledge base and cultural intelligence that can help to provide not only strong teams but also strengthen effective business relationships with a firm's vendors and customers (Hall, 1976 and1998). Culture has impact on leadership behaviors through a broad range of variables such as religion, language, ethnic background, history, and political systems (Dorfman, 1996). Cross cultural leadership studies by Global Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness (GLOBE) has tried to identify leaders' behaviors that are accepted and effective in specific cultures. The Globe study explained how societal cultural values and practices affect what leaders do because leaders are immersed in their own societal cultures and they are more likely to enact leader behaviors that are favored in that culture. The GLOBE program found that few characteristics of leaders such as visionary, trustworthy, encouraging, communicative, and confidence builder were generalizable across 61 countries (Grachev, 2009;House, Hanges, Javiddan, Dorfman, and Vipin, 2004), while other leadership attributes were culture specific. Cheng, Chor, Wu, Huang, and Farh (2004) also have similar findings when they tried to identify similarities between transformational leadership emanating from western culture, and paternalistic leadership, predominantly developed in China.
Dominant cultural values endorsed by the society results in common implicit leadership and organization theories held by members of that culture (Lord & Maher, 1991;House et. al., 1997); thus, the effective leader in a particular society will be one who embraces implicit leadership beliefs possessed by the followers. Phenomenon of leadership is based on mutual influence, i.e. leaders adapt to followers' behaviors and followers are influenced by the leader's behavior (Bradford and Cohen, 1998;House, 1996) rather than unidirectional influence that flows from leader to followers as the previous studies have shown. The hierarchical culture of Russia and Thailand make one way communication, from top down, the only appreciable form of communication in their cultures. The managers are expected to be knowledgeable and input from subordinates is not always solicited (Javidan & House, 2001). Thus in such cultures, leaders' behaviors tend to be more direct and less participative. National culture has a strong impact on organizational culture and leadership practices (House et al., 2002); thus management and leadership practices need to be aligned with national cultures (Newman and Nollen, 1996) and the expectation of the followers. The differences among cultures limit the transferability of exemplary management practices from one culture to the other. Chen and Farh (1999) found that the transformational leadership was effective in Taiwanese context when leaders exhibited behavioral dimensions of transformational leadership which were more relationship-oriented such as providing individual support, promoting cooperation and acting as an example than the other dimensions that are not related to relationship orientation. Relationship orientation parallels the collectivist culture of Taiwan where the relationship oriented behavior of leaders is appreciated among the followers. The extant literature suggests that culture has a great impact on leadership tendencies, and in collectivist cultures, relationship oriented leaders are more effective. The impact of other cultural dimensions for instance, uncertainty avoidance, power distance and masculinity on leadership behaviors remain under researched. The task behavior (initiating structure) of the leader in high uncertainty avoidance and high power distance culture has yet not been explored. This study intends to fill this void by exploring leadership behaviors in high power, high uncertainty avoidance culture. Pakistan is a high-context culture and it will be interesting to see the general tendencies of Pakistanis.

Pakistan and the Culture
Pakistan is a country with more than 170 million people within its borders. The capital city of this country is Islamabad, surrounded by beautiful and picturesque mountains. Some other large and populated cities are Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, and Rawalpindi. The people are called "Pakistanis", majority religion is Islam, the national language is Urdu, and millions of people speak Pashtu as well. The economy is heavily controlled by state institutions. Public sector leaders have realized the importance of privatization and are trying to privatize some industries. Pakistan, which is considered to be a high-context culture like most other Asian countries, has a diverse population and most people have high concern on interpersonal relationships. Since Pakistan is a high Power Distance culture, hierarchy and inequality between managers and employees would be expected and this is the case with most collectivistic societies. Hofstede (1980) andTrompenaar (1993) emphasized that culture plays an important role in the behavior of its people. Adler (1986) mentions that national culture has a greater impact on employees than does their organization's culture. Thus, management must concern itself more with developing appropriate management methods relevant to the national culture than with optimizing organizational culture.
In the case of Pakistan, due to their high-context nature, the meaning of most conversations tends to be more implicit or less direct than in many Western cultures. As such, greater attention must be given to additional forms of communication such as voice tone, body language, eye-contact, and facial expressions. Business is personal and based on trust, developing relationships rather than exchanging facts and information is the main objective of communication. Social interaction between people and interchange of visit among friends and families is an element that can be seen in daily life activities. Religion has heavily emphasized the values of interchange of visits and hospitality. With these characteristics, communication is very imperative, especially at the workplace. Despite the high focus on socialization, male and female employees are expected to be knowledgeable and globally competitive in the workplace regardless of their age. With regard to women's role in the Pakistani workplace, educated females have become professional entrepreneurs and competitors in the economic developments of the country. More and more corporations and businesses have been formed by female professionals that have strengthened their economic position in the society. The availability of college level educational opportunities and the changing role that women play will continue to lead more females into prominent leadership and managerial ranks.

Dimensions of Societal Culture
A number of typologies have been developed to capture differences in national cultural values but Hofstede's typology represents the most exhaustive cross-cultural investigation of values to date and also meets the critical standards of reliability and validity. Let us review the value dimensions identified by Hofstede (1980Hofstede ( , 1991 and also the Hofstede's description of Pakistan's culture on these cultural value dimensions. Uncertainty Avoidance: Value dimension deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. Individuals in high uncertainty avoidance cultures rely on clarity of tasks and roles, procedures, policies, laws, rules and regulations in order to minimize uncertainty and cope with discomfort in unknown situations. High uncertainty avoidance score of Pakistanis represents a society wherein people are not tolerant to ambiguity and are threatened by uncertain and unstructured situations. Rules, as integrating and control mechanisms, are more efficacious in high uncertainty culture (Slocum & Lei 1993). Crozier (1964) noted that French employees from a high uncertainty avoidance country prefer the certainty of rules while this rule governed approach does not work well in the U.S., which is a low uncertainty avoidance culture. High uncertainty avoidance cultures require formalization and structuring to reduce uncertainty but low uncertainty avoidance cultures may see the hierarchical and rule governed structure as performance hindering by curbing the discretion of individuals (Crozier,I964;Schneider & DeMeyer,I991). A study by Offermann and Hellmann (1997) on effective leader behaviors in high uncertainty avoidance culture found that the leaders in high uncertainty avoidance culture tend to be more directive, more controlling and less delegating compared to those in low uncertainty avoidance cultures.
Masculinity: High masculine societies emphasize the so-called masculine qualities of assertiveness and competitiveness over more feminine ones of modesty and caring. A high score on this dimension also means that the society is experiencing a high degree of gender differentiation of roles. Pakistan has a low score on this dimension equal to world average, representing a societal culture where values of modesty and solidarity are pervasive. Adler (1997) has suggested the only effective leadership style for the twenty-first century is feminine style of leadership characterized by modesty, caring, helping, nurturance and interpersonal sensitivity and collective interest.
Power distance: Value dimension indicates the extent to which unequal distribution of power is expected and accepted in a society. High power distance culture represents a hierarchical structure where the concentration of power lies in few hands thus making the centralized decision making a norm in such societies. Implicit in this view is the idea that people are predisposed to let grow inequalities of power within the society. Pakistan represents a high power distance society where unequal distribution of power is accepted as the proper way of organizing social systems. Leaders possess high power position and participation in decision making of those in lower positions is not a norm. Morris and Pavett (1992) suggest that a leader's participative management practice may be seen with fear and distrust in high power distance cultures but is highly related to performance of the employees in low power distance cultures. Participative leadership is found to have positive effects on satisfaction and commitment of the followers in low power distance cultures like United States, while directive and supportive leadership is reported to be effective in high power distance cultures like Taiwan and Mexico (Dorfman et. al., 1997) Long term orientation: Indicates futuristic approach while short term orientation is characterized by stability and tradition. Members in societies with short term orientation are more reflective thus prefer adherence to past conventions and tend to fulfill social obligations. Pakistan has very low score on long term orientation thus representing a society which prefers to adhere to traditions and past precedence.

Collectivism-individualism:
A cultural dimension that concerns interpersonal relationships among individuals in the society. In collectivist societies, individuals derive their identity from the group and are expected to give primacy to group goals over individual goals. Pakistan is a collectivist society where individuals perceive themselves as part of group that is socialized in a value system where interpersonal relationships, solidarity and aggregate interests are paramount. In collectivist cultures, leaders emphasize building identification with an aggregate interest which brings more satisfaction for the followers. Such identification has a positive impact on their performance (Gabrenya et. at., 1983) because collectivists see themselves as being tied to others in their social network and working for collective gain help collectivists strengthen their group identity (Erez & Somech, 1996). Adler (1997) stated that traditional twentieth century leadership models primarily reflected characteristics of American men and their norms, but twenty-first century needs leadership that neither reflects the masculine ideal nor the American ethos. The American's extreme individualism coupled with low power distance has made U.S. leadership practices differentiated from leadership approaches in other parts of the world (Dorfman 1996;Dorfman & Howell 1988;Hofstede 1991). From the analysis of 221 definitions of leadership, Rost (1991) concluded that leadership concepts reflect some of the core values of American culture and masculine qualities such as assertiveness, competitiveness, hierarchical, quantitative, short-term, pragmatic and materialistic. Such description of leadership has been rooted in the fact that most studies on leadership have been conducted in the U.S. which has unique culture and cannot be generalized to other cultures (Erez, 1994). America's highly individualistic and masculine culture promotes qualities of assertiveness, competitiveness and individual gain. American's low acceptance of power differences has generated a culture of participative style of leadership thus leading to the conclusion that United States is unique in several respects from all other cultures that have been studied so far (Howell et al. 1994), and the theories developed in American culture cannot be generalized in other cultures. Organizations have brought change in their business and management/leadership practices but only in ways that are congruent to their societal cultural values, which leads to the conclusion that societies adapt to changes rather than adopting them. The homogeneity of cultures, despite the increasing role of internationalization could not be achieved and differences continue to persist.

Literature Review
Leadership practices are culturally contingent as demonstrated by the findings of the GLOBE project (House et. al., 2002). This is the reason researchers suggest that leaders need to have cultural acumen (Javidan & House, 2001). Different cross-cultural studies report the prevalence of different leadership styles contingent on the predominant culture of the society. Followers' characteristics get as much influence from culture as do leaders' style of leadership. Societal culture is associated with a specific set of beliefs about leadership, thus societal cultures influence the kind of leadership found to be acceptable and effective by people within a specific culture (House et. al., 2002). Empirical investigations have shown that national culture is not only reflected in managerial attitudes and beliefs (Lodge & Vogel, 1987), but also in the behaviors of the employees and their ways of discharging their roles (Jackofsky & Slocum, 1988;Shane, 1995). Cultural values of a country signal what leadership behaviors are expected and accepted in a specific society. Personal values define normative behavior of individuals in social structures (Triandis, 1995) whereas individual values are being influenced by the values largely endorsed by the society (Hofstede, 1980). One of the objectives of GLOBE project was to determine to what extent the cultural forces influence the expectations that individuals have with respect to the roles of leaders and their behaviors. The GLOBE study found that individuals in a given society share similar implicit beliefs about leaders because of their shared cultural orientation and they have developed these implicit beliefs of leader's behavior in their minds out of conscious awareness. Furthermore, the leader's influence on the individual depends on how closely a leader's behavior matches the implicit ideas of the individual about the leader. The effectiveness of the leadership styles also depends on the extent to which these make good match with the follower's value orientation as cultural congruence theory (House et. al., 1997) suggests that leader's behaviors consistent with individuals' values turn out to be more acceptable and effective than those behaviors that are not aligned with one's deeply-held values.
Contingency perspective (Fiedler, 1967;Hersey & Blanchard, 1977;House, 1971) argues those followers' characteristics play an important role in determining a leader's effectiveness and it can be expected that leader's style varies as the followers' needs and expectations vary. Bass (1990) has similar suggestion for transformational leadership that in highly egalitarian societies, transformational leaders may need to be more participative wherein in power and status differentiated societies, transformational leaders may enact more directive style of leadership. Drenth and Den Hartog (1998) contend that though characteristics of charismatic leaders are universally valued the enactment of these characteristics across culture is very dissimilar. Gelfand and colleagues (2004) maintain that the impact of transformational or transactional leadership on followers' attitude will be moderated by cultural context, so the effectiveness of the leader is expected to be determined by the fit between cultural orientation of the followers and the behavior of the leaders. Jung and Avolio (1999) found the effects of the leadership style and followers' cultural orientation on the followers' performance. They reported that individualists worked best with transactional leaders because a transactional leader offered them rewards which satisfy their individual goals. On the contrary, collectivists showed good performance with transformational leaders since there was a high level of value congruence between followers and leaders. A transformational leader induces a shared vision among the followers and gives them inspirational motivation to work for collective interest and subordinate their self interest to collective interest. Individuals in collectivist societies view interpersonal skills and relationships as being more valuable than specific job knowledge and skills; thus, leaders are expected to show high relationship orientation to exercise effective leadership by satisfying the followers' needs in such society. In their cross-cultural study Tang et al., (2010) found that, Taiwanese academic leaders outscored U.S. academic leaders on relationship oriented leadership behaviors. These results are in line with the collectivist and long-term cultural orientation of Taiwanese which have a strong impact on their relationship building and in-group solidarity (Chen & Farh, 1999;Cheng et al., 2004;Yeh, 2006). The inference above is supported by Chen and Farh's research (1999) examining the suitability of transformational leadership principles to businesses in Taiwan using local employees as participants. They found that in light of the relationship orientation of the Chinese cultural tradition, transformational leadership behaviors relating to relationship oriented behavior (such as promoting cooperation, providing individual support, acting as an exemplar to subordinates) had a stronger positive effect on subordinates' job performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. In contrast, the behaviors not related to relationship oriented activities (such as vision building, intellectual stimulation) showed only a weaker or insignificant effect. Tsui and colleagues (2004) found a set of leadership behaviors that are necessary for effective leadership, these behaviors include risk taking, relationship building, caring for employees (benevolence), operations monitoring, and vision articulating (Conger & Kanungo, 1987;Farh & Cheng, 2000;Tsui et al., 2004). Riggio and collegues (2002) suggest that effective leaders possess multiple forms of intelligence that allow them to respond successfully to a range of situations. Bass (1990b) proposes that social and emotional intelligence of transformational leaders are critical because these are important to the leader's ability to inspire people through relationship building. There seems to be a high correlation between collectivist cultural values and relationship oriented behavior of leaders.
Arguments and counter arguments for the presence of gender differences in leadership styles can be found in previous research. The researchers who believe the presence of gender differences in leadership styles offer different reasons (Henning & Jardin, 1977;Loden, 1985;Sargent, 1981;Shakeshaft, 1987), and one such reason is the presence of stereotypes about male and female behaviors because of ingrained sex differences in personality traits and behavioral tendencies. Women are credited with different set of qualities than those of men; thus they are expected to behave differently when in a managerial position. The qualities associated with women includes sympathetic, kind, warm, caring, friendly, supportive, empathetic, nurturing, understanding, and helpful, while men are believed to be impersonal, self-interested, self sufficient, aggressive, objective, rational, hierarchical, tough minded, assertive, and dominant. Loden (1985) argued that females tend to behave in feminine leadership style reflecting their sex qualities, while men prefer assertive leadership styles reflecting masculine qualities. The behaviors and traits are culturally ingrained or biologically given is debatable but normative expectations from a female, to be good manager, is to exhibit a feminine style of management (Russell et. al., 1988), thus resulting into sex differentiated leadership behaviors.
However, Kanter (1977) suggests that such differences are visible only because of the differing structural positions. The number of female leaders is less and they are relatively new to the managerial roles thus they have less mentoring and collegial support available to them in comparison to their male counterparts. Moreover, people are reluctant to have females for leadership position (O'Leary, 1974;Riger & Galligan, 1980;Terborg, 1977); therefore, this attitudinal bias may lead them to adopt a style that is less assertive and more relational to win acceptance of others. But on the other side, there is evidence in the research arguing the absence of such sex differentiated behaviors is that leadership styles of males and females occupying similar leadership roles in organizations don't differ (Bartol & Martin, 1986;Bass, 1981;Kanter, 1977a;Nieva & Gutek, 1981), as they are more concerned with their effectiveness in their managerial roles instead of behaving in the gender stereotypic manner , leaders tend to behave what makes them effective in a situation reflecting the concept of contingency leadership which suggests that a leader's behavior is contingent on the favorableness of the situation. The extant literature suggests that leaders need to show more consideration when the followers are from collectivist culture, but no study has yet explored the impact of other cultural dimensions on the leader's task oriented behavior. This study intends to measure the relationship and task orientation of managers socialized in a culture holding the values of high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance and collectivism. Moreover, effort will also be made to find out if gender and age has any impact on leadership tendencies of the managers in Pakistan. It is expected that the study will also be the first of its kind to investigate the culturally contingent leadership behaviors of Pakistani managers.

Hypotheses
Hersey (1984, 1997, and 2008) states that leadership is the process of influencing others while providing an environment where personal, professional, and/or organizational objectives can be successfully achieved. The behaviors of leaders and managers have been generally perceived in terms of initiating structure (taskorientation) and consideration (relationship-orientation) components (Halpin and Winer, 1957;Fleishman, 1967). Bass (1990) found relation-oriented functions to be associated with subordinate satisfaction and taskoriented functions to be associated with group performance. However, Bass (1990) also found relations functions to be positively associated with group performance. Task-based context focuses on the work to be done; therefore, skills and abilities are the predominant criteria on which workers base their willingness to be vulnerable. Abilities are a clear requirement for accomplishing tasks in a specific domain (Mayer, Davis and Schoorman, 1995). Leaders tend to use various amounts of task or relationship behaviors because these are not opposite poles of single continuum but are two independent behavioral dimensions.

Relationship orientation (Consideration):
Involves managerial behaviors concerning relationship building, creating trust and loyalty. In a collectivist society, members are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which continue protecting them in exchange for loyalty. Interpersonal relationships, group affiliations and group interest are of utmost importance for collectivists. Literature suggests that collectivist cultures favor relationship oriented behavior of the leaders (Chen & Farh, 1999;Cheng et. al., 2004;Yeh, 2006). The Pakistani's collectivist cultural orientation coupled with low masculinity may have developed a cognitive prototype of effective leader as the one who is showing relationship oriented behavior. So we can expect Pakistani managers to be highly relationship oriented.
Task orientation (Initiating structure): Involves managerial behaviors concerning directing subordinates, clarifying roles and tasks to subordinates. High uncertainty avoidance behavior of Pakistanis reflects an appreciation for tasks that are clear and involves less ambiguity on their part. High power distance culture of Pakistan encourages leaders to exercise power concentrated in their roles by centralized decision making and clarifying roles and responsibilities to subordinates. Pakistan's collectivism combined with high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance behavior and short term orientation make it likely that managers tend to show high task behavior. Managers are expected to spell out the duties of the employees, give them guidance and support to get targets achieved and their authority will be accepted without question. The short term orientation of the Pakistani society also creates dependence of the followers on their leaders because of their reliance on precedence and adherence to conventions. Thus we can expect Pakistani managers to be highly task oriented while maintaining strong relationships in the workplace. The hypotheses based on above discussion are; Hypothesis 1: Pakistani respondents will have similar scores for relationship orientations and task orientations.
Hypothesis 2: Pakistani respondents will have high scores for relationship and task orientations.
Cultural orientation seems to have a large impact on leaders' effectiveness, and a leader or manager is presumably much concerned about managing effectively. Moreover, empirical evidence supports the view that males and females in managerial roles tend to behave in similar fashion than they do in social roles (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Thus we can hypothesize that; Hypothesis 3: Pakistani male and female respondents will have similar scores on task orientations.
Hypothesis 4: Pakistani male and female respondents will have similar scores on relationship orientations. Some believe that age has little influence on leadership tendencies since a leader's behavior is contingent on followers' characteristics, and the effectiveness of the leader lies in the extent to which she/he can satisfy the followers' needs. As the discussion of the Pakistani culture suggests, leaders are expected to be high on both relationship and task orientation, we hypothesize; Hypothesis 5: Pakistani respondents who are 26 years of age and older will have similar scores on task orientation as the respondents who are 25 years of age and younger.
Hypothesis 6: Pakistani respondents who are 26 years of age and older will have similar scores on relationship orientation as the respondents who are 25 years of age and younger.

Methodology
To determine the task and relationship orientation of respondents, this study used the style questionnaire developed by Northouse (2007). The statistical output for the reliability data has shown that the cronbach's alpha is 0.887, which means that questions are acceptable in social science research. The participants indicated the extent to which they engaged in the stated behavior on a five point scale. A rating of 1 means "Never" and a rating of 5 means "Always" with the person demonstrating the specific behavior. The responses for the odd numbered items were added up to determine the score of task orientation behavioral dimension while even numbered items were added up to determine the score for relationship orientation behavioral dimension. The scoring interpretation for the Style Questionnaire by Northouse (2007) is presented in Table  1. 10-24 Very low range High task behavior scores and high relationship behavior scores mean the leader is flexible and can easily focus on what needs to be done in a given context without delaying the task or hurting the relationship. Effective leaders stay in control by managing through a balance of both task and relationship oriented behaviors, as appropriate, to make sure the objectives and goals are accomplished. The self-administered questionnaires used in this study offered anonymity. The English version of the survey was translated by the second author, who is a native speaker, into Urdu and then it was given to three university professors who spoke both languages fluently for checking the accuracy of the translated survey. Then a fifth professor backtranslated the Urdu survey into English to see if the meaning had stated the same. The authors and their colleagues agreed that the meaning of the survey has not changed in the Urdu translated version. This study targeted Pakistani citizens, workers and managers. The surveys were sent to Pakistanis in the following cities: Lahore, Sargodha, Sahiwal, Faisalabad, and Multan. The focus was placed on Punjab, the largest province of Pakistan in terms of population. The questionnaires were distributed to the residents of the provincial capital, Lahore as well as Punjab which are the two largest cities of the country in terms of population and GDP. Surveys were also given to candidates in the commercial and Industrial cities of Faisalabad and Multan as well as the agriculture based cities of Sargodha and Sahiwal. The responses of citizens, managers, employees, and businesspeople were collected and recorded.
For the purpose of this study, a convenience population was sampled and data collected for analysis. 500 questionnaires were sent to the respondents. The convenience sample was obtained through educational organizations, businesses and entrepreneurs, as well as private and public sector institutions. A paragraph explaining the purpose of this research and guaranteeing total confidentiality was included with each survey. The respondents were asked to voluntarily complete the questionnaire and return it to the specified researcher in-person or by company mail. Since some people do not like to complete surveys in Pakistan, two faculty members were assigned to personally interview candidates and record their answers. As such, about 50% (116) of the completed surveys come from workers and managers who agreed to be personally interviewed by the assigned interviewers. Out of total surveys distributed, a total of 232 usable surveys, comprising a response rate of 46%, were used for analysis in this study. Of the subjects, 70 (30%) are female respondents and 162 (70%) are males. While only 29 (13%) respondents reported having a high school level of education or less, 203 (87%) had a Bachelors of Science degree or higher. In terms of management experience, 120 (52%) respondents reported having been managers and 113 (48%) had never been in management. Of the subjects, 78 (33%) are 25 years of age or younger and 49 (21%) are 36 years of age or older, and the rest are in between.

Results and Discussion
The average scores of Pakistani respondents for task orientation falls in "moderately high range," and their relationship orientation average also falls in "moderately high range", yet there are statistically significant differences among them. As can be seen from Table 2 and using the t-test for differences in two means, at a 0.05 level of significance, the first hypothesis is rejected because the calculated t value (2.35) does not fall within the critical value of t for statistical significance; in other words, since the t value does fall within the critical values (+1.96 and -1.96), the alternative hypothesis is supported. Furthermore, since the p-value of 0.0192 is smaller than alpha (α) = 0.05, there is sufficient evidence to reject the hypothesis. Therefore, it can be said that Pakistani respondents have dissimilar scores for relationship and task orientations as they are more highly focused on their tasks. We hypothesized based on the cultural orientation of Pakistanis that managers would exhibit high relationship and task orientations, it can be seen from the table that the average score of managers both in relationship and task behavior lie in moderately high range; therefore, second hypothesis can be accepted. Pakistani managers exhibit high task and leadership behaviors.
Based on the results, the task and relationship orientation scores of Pakistani respondents do not appear to be similar. As such, one can conclude that the Pakistani respondents have significantly different scores on the task and relationship orientations. As can be seen from Table 3, the third and fourth hypotheses regarding gender differences cannot be rejected. Based on these results, the task and relationship orientation scores of male and female respondents from Pakistan appear to be similar. Therefore, the hypotheses are accepted. Pakistani male and female respondents do have similar scores on both task and relationship orientations. As can be seen from Table 4, the fifth and sixth hypotheses regarding age differences cannot be rejected. Based on these results, the task and relationship orientation scores of younger and older respondents from Pakistan appear to be similar. Therefore, the hypotheses are accepted. So, Pakistani respondents who are 26 years of age and older have similar scores on both task and relationship orientations as their counterparts who are 25 years of age and younger. It was hypothesized that Pakistani respondents will have similar scores for relationship and task orientations, and the current study did not support this hypothesis because they more highly focused on their tasks. No differences were found based on gender or age groups.

Discussion and Implications
Pakistanis are more task-oriented and their relationship orientation falls in the moderately high range as well. Unfortunately, due to misinformation, task-oriented individuals are at times perceived as Type-A personality individuals who are only concentrating on getting multiple things done simultaneously. In contrast, relationship-orientation characteristics tend to indicate some insecurity and uncertainty. Relationshiporiented individuals are more concerned with maintaining happy, harmonious personal relationships and with high interest in group activities (Mujtaba and Balboa, 2009). However, the results of study showed something a little different. In regard to Pakistani respondents, they are demonstrating a higher level of focus on tasks while also having moderately high focus on their relationship orientation. It appears that Pakistanis can successfully balance their work and social lives in a balanced manner. In general, the normal well adjusted person would express the values of society by choosing the task-oriented response and avoiding the socially undesirable self and relationship-oriented responses (Bass, 1967;Mujtaba and Balboa, 2009). Katz and Kahn (1978) viewed the role of leader as providing necessary incremental information, and supporting resources to ensure subordinates' effective performance and satisfaction. Consistent with the Katz and Kahn's view, the path goal theory (House 1996) suggests that effective leaders exhibit behaviors that complement subordinates' environment and abilities which are instrumental to subordinates' satisfaction and performance. This implies that effective leaders engage in behaviors that result in increased motivation and satisfaction by enhancing the psychological states of followers. Thus, a leader's task is to assist followers in achieving their goals by providing them necessary resources and guidance, while removing obstacles in the way of goal realization. Path goal theory suggested that leaders can elicit followers' satisfaction by exhibiting task behavior when tasks are ambiguous and they need to show relationship behavior to positively effect the satisfaction of followers who are engaged in clear but difficult tasks.
Thus, in Pakistani context, the leaders' high task and relationship behaviors explicitly imply the followers' needs for such behavior. As Hersey and Blanchard (1977) suggest, the variable that determines the appropriate leadership style is followers' maturity defined as the "willingness and ability" of a person to direct his or her own behavior. The cultural orientation of Pakistanis shaped by high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance culture requires leaders to show high task behavior by spelling out the roles and responsibilities of the individuals and structuring tasks to reduce uncertainty for them. They want to know what is expected of them, when and how they should accomplish the goals, thus leaving the leaders in more authoritarian position creating the power distance between the leader and followers which is very much acceptable in the Pakistani culture. So the effectiveness of a leader's behavior depends on the followers' cultural orientation (Jung & Avolio, 1999), thus when the behavior of the followers is toward uncertainty avoidance, the leader exhibits more task behavior to compensate for uncertainty by structuring tasks and clearing expectations and setting explicit performance standards. The collectivists prefer to maintain ingroup solidarity by developing interpersonal relationships (Ungson, 1997), and collectivist Pakistanis have value congruence with leaders engaged in relationship behavior. Pakistani managers have internalized the effective leadership roles owed to socialization in collectivist culture (Graen, 1976, Terborg, 1977, Wanhous, 1977. Pakistani managers are socialized in a culture where relationship building and in-group solidarity are highly emphasized. They have learned the followers' expectations for relationship building with leader and other members, so they develop a psychologically supportive environment for them by being friendly and satisfying their social needs. This study has found a moderately high task behavior of the leaders in collectivist, high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance culture, but this high task behavior of managers is deriving its effect from high uncertainty behavior and high power distance cultural values of Pakistani employees. The variables of gender and age have not predicted any variation in leadership styles of Pakistanis. This is in line with the findings of previous research which suggests that organizational roles should override the gender roles because of socialization and the selection procedure of the organization for the managerial roles which reduces the likelihood of managers engaged in gender stereotypic behaviors working on similar managerial roles. And as Pakistani managers are socialized in a culture which is low on masculine value dimension favoring cooperative relationships, empathy, consideration, interpersonal sensitivity and an orientation toward collective interest, so they tend to respond to the needs and motivations of their followers by showing cooperative and relational styles of management which make them effective in low Masculine and high collectivist culture as do most Asian managers (Turner, 1993;Trompenaars, 1993).
Though it needs further scrutiny before findings of the study can be taken as definitive, this study implies that to be effective, leaders and managers need to be sensitive and responsive to followers' needs, they must identify themselves with their followers to create a sense of togetherness because behaviors consistent with followers' values help followers identify themselves with their leaders and their goals. This is the reason that the relational style of communication of American women expatriate managers, on average, makes them outperform their American male colleagues in Asian countries because they embrace the management style of managers in other economies including many strong economies of Asia such as Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong (Adler, 1994). These American women expatriate managers meet the implicit beliefs of followers about leaders' behaviors thus they are more successful in their roles in Asian countries than their American male expatriate managers who do not meet the cognitive prototype of effective managers in Asian culture. This interpretation gets substantiated from the findings of Globe study (House et. al., 2002) which implies that leaders who are accepted by followers are more effective than those who get less or no acceptance. So managers need to get acceptance and meet implicit leadership beliefs by developing congruence with the followers' values. This also implies that expatriate managers who are suggested to have cultural acumen (Javidan & House, 2001) will adapt their style to be high on task and relationship orientation because the homogeneity of cultures and hence leadership practices, despite increasing role of internationalization, could not be achieved and differences continue to persist (Drenth & De Hartog, 1998).

Conclusion and Recommendations
Cultural orientation of followers seems to have real impact on the leadership styles of leaders. Culture is a strong predictor of the leadership orientation because a leader has to satisfy followers' needs and expectations which are largely determined by their cultural values. As contingency theory suggest, the degree to which a leader engages in task or relationship behavior depends on the followers' characteristics (Hersey & Blenchard, 1977), the finding of this study implies that employees in Pakistan need managers to show task behavior but not at the cost of damaging the relationship. Managers structure the task and they may possess high position power but they still need to create social bonds with employees that will be a source of self confidence and social satisfaction and stress reduction for employees (House & Mitchell, 1974).
Since national culture impacts the management practices and behaviors in the organization. The cultural orientation of Pakistanis implies that the effective leadership, in Pakistani context, should include moderately high task and relationship orientation to be aligned with the followers' needs. Some researchers argue that global leadership necessitate cultural acumen (Javidan & House, 2001) and relational competence (Clark & Matze, 1999), so expatriate managers, to be affective, should adapt to the local leadership styles while working in Pakistan. Though the findings here cannot be taken as definitive, but based on the findings of this study, it can be recommended that expatriate managers working in Pakistan must have a right mix of task and relationship orientation. How followers define relationship orientation may vary across cultures, but certainly, employees in the organization want their managers to show consideration to their needs. The need for task oriented leaders/managers is evident from Pakistan's high score on uncertainty avoidance behavior (Hofstede, 1991). Leaders/managers are expected to reduce uncertainty of the tasks and results by clarifying role and responsibilities of the employees. The findings of the study may serve to bolster cultural acumen in the expatriate managers.

Limitations and Future Research
This study has not measured the cultural orientation of the Pakistanis; instead, it has relied on the findings of Hofstede's (1991) cultural dimension score which may have changed over the year because of globalization and modernization. Cheng et al., (2004) identified a change in the orientation of Chinese because of modernization, industrialization, and globalization which has changed the notion of paternalistic leadership in China. To generalize the findings, future studies should measure the cultural dimensions of Pakistanis also to overcome the limitation of this study. For future studies, another important dimension is to investigate the relationship of cultural orientation of managers -that should have been measured along Hofstede's cultural value dimension which may reflect variation across gender and age -and their leadership orientation. Though culture has influence on leadership behaviors, the impact of personality cannot be eliminated in the prediction of leadership behavior. Future studies should take into consideration the personality factor as well in the prediction of leadership orientation.
This study has not measured the effectiveness of the leaders. This study implies that the behavior of managers across gender does not vary, but exhibiting same behaviors, male and female managers may be rated differently on effectiveness scale, for the followers' expectations of gender stereotypic behaviors from female and male managers. Future studies should explore the relationship of managers' behaviors and the effectiveness of the managers across gender, to see if gender influences the effectiveness of managerial behaviors. Another limitation is the sample size because of which the findings of this study cannot be generalized to the total population as it is based on a small number of working adults. As such, future studies can focus on increasing the sample size with similar working populations in Pakistan, and such research can analyze the responses based on different training backgrounds and categories of age to see if having more experience or being older makes a difference in the task or relationship orientation scores of respondents in a high context culture. Finally, researchers should also note that management experience may also be a variable or factor in the scores of respondents. Therefore, future studies should compare those who have five or more years of management experience with those who have never been a manager to see if this is a variable in the task and relationship orientation scores of respondents.